Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Reflectivity: Why are they important? Why aren’t most students adept at these processes? How can the internet be used to improve student capabilities in these areas?

Curriculum Problem Report

Matt Dean

Background and Needs Statement

Today, technology, especially the internet, is causing the world to change more rapidly than it ever has before. The educational system must prepare our students to deal with the vast changes that are occurring in society as a consequence of the “information age”. The industrial model of education is no longer appropriate for today’s students. Students must still be required to learn content information, but more importantly, students must learn how to think. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills will allow today’s citizens to deal with the constant change in society by providing them with the tools needed to discover facts on their own and use this self-gathered knowledge.

Description of the Problem

From my experience with secondary science students, it is apparent that many of these students lack the critical thinking and problem-solving skills required by today’s society. Even the “best” students lack these all-important survival skills. In the report, A Nation At Risk, the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) stated, “Many 17-year-olds do not possess the ‘higher-order’ intellectual skills we should expect of them. Nearly 40 percent cannot draw inferences from written material; only one-fifth can write a persuasive essay; and only one-third can solve a mathematics problem requiring several steps.” In addition, Schafersman (1998) estimates that less than 15% of the American adult population possesses the ability to practice critical thinking in their everyday lives.

In my opinion the “industrial education” system and its assessment practices has placed value on memorized, factual information and not on critical thinking, problem- solving, and reflection. Many other educators hold this opinion. For example, Raths, Jonas, Rothstein, and Wasserman (1967) stated, "memorization, drill, homework, the three Rs, and the quiet classroom are rewarded, while, inquiry, reflection, and the consideration of alternatives are frowned upon." This has led to the development of students that memorize information very well, but who have little ability to analyze and apply this information to real world situations. Norman (1980) stated, “It is strange that we expect students to learn, yet seldom teach them anything about learning.” Clement and Lochhead (1980) echoed these sentiments by adding, “We should be teaching students how to think. Instead, we are teaching them what to think.”

The importance of critical thinking in today's world is undeniable. Thomas and Smoot (1994) stated that,"Employers report that today's jobs demand higher-order thinking skills of workers. To help students make the transition to work, schools must take an educational approach that enables students to think critically."

So far this report has helped to establish the ideas that critical thinking and problem-solving are important and that many of today’s students lack these skills, but just what are critical thinking and problem-solving skills? Kuruback (1998) stated that these processes involve dynamic mental processes that are used to evaluate information and reach logical conclusions in meaningful and useful ways. Scrive and Paul (1996) described critical thinking as “…the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information…” These researchers also stressed that the information used during critical thinking and problem-solving processes is gathered from “observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, and communication…” Schafersman (1998) stated that critical thinking is a complex mental process consisting of a multitude of components. These components include (a) focusing on problems and questions, (b) identifying problems, (c) clarifying issues, (d) focusing on relevant topics and methods, (e) relying on empirical evidence, (f) accessing relevant data, (g) manipulating data and statistics, (h) validating evidence by repetition, (i) avoiding subjective thinking, (j) analyzing arguments, (k) judging the credibility of sources, (l) identifying assumptions, (m) treating odd information skeptically, (n) watching out for authoritarian influences, (o) watching out for specious arguments, (p) using logical reasoning, (q) understanding induction and deduction, ® avoiding logical fallacies, (s) making value judgments properly, (t) acting on one's beliefs, (u) considering the others' viewpoints, (v) being sensitive to the feelings of others, (w) judging the morality of one's own actions, and (x) anticipating the consequences of one's actions.

Review of the Literature

Researchers have suggested several different instructional methods for improving students' critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Many of these suggestions can be implemented quite easily in the online classroom environment.

One of the most frequently mentioned techniques is collaborative learning. Johnson and Johnson (1996) have found that collaborative learning allows for scaffolding of thinking for students, while also facilitating (a) joint reflection, (b) the giving and receiving of feedback, (c) the exchange of resources and information, and (d) greater social support. The researchers also found that the effect sizes, for the variables listed above, favor collaborative learning approaches even more when tasks are complex and involve greater problem-solving and creativity requirements.

Probably the most common way to facilitate collaborative learning in the online classroom is the utilization of asynchronous discussion boards. Curtis & Lawson (2001) explored the effect of online courses on collaborative learning. In particular, the researchers sought to answer the following two research questions:

1. To what extent can the components of collaborative learning be identified in the online interactions of students placed in collaborative learning groups?

2. To what extent does the text-only online environment inhibit or enhance the collaboration that occurs within small project-based groups?

The subjects for this study included 24 undergraduate students enrolled in the online course "The Internet and Education". During the course, the students were required to complete 2 cooperative projects. The first assignment required students to select a topic for investigation and report to the class as a whole on the investigation in stages. Class participants were expected to provide feedback as the project continued. The second assignment required students to develop a set of recommendations for the implementation of internet-based communications services and information resources in an education or training program. In order to complete these activities, students were to communicate via email and an electronic discussion board.

In order to answer the research questions for this study, the researchers evaluated the number and form of online interactions between group members. The electronic postings were collected and analyzed. Students also completed an anonymous evaluation form. While evaluating the contents of the electronic postings, the researchers looked for evidence of collaborative learning. According to Johnson & Johnson (1996), the following major types of behaviors occur in collaborative learning situations: (a)giving and receiving help and assistance, (b)exchanging resources and information, (c)explaining elaborating information, (d)sharing existing knowledge with others, (e)giving and receiving feedback, (f)challenging others’ contributions, (g)advocating increased effort and perseverance among peers, (h)engaging in small group skills, and (i)monitoring each others’ efforts and contributions. After coding the data, the researchers concluded that many of the behaviors associated with collaborative learning were contained in the electronic communications. Although the course required that students use only asynchronous modes of communication, the researchers found that most students participated in several synchronous chat sessions in order to complete the required assignments. They concluded that although asynchronous forms of communication do encourage collaboration, there is a need to incorporate opportunities for real-time interactions among students.

Wegerif (1998) explored the effects of asynchronous communications on students enrolled in the Teaching and Learning Online course offered at the Open University. After analyzing student evaluation forms, email and discussion board postings, and students' interview transcripts, the researcher concluded that asynchronous communications promote reflection and collaboration. Wegerif also felt that the online environment supports an “egalitarian style of communication”. This type of communication encourages all class participants to participate.

Similarly, Santos and Oliveira (1999) stated that communication via the internet creates an environment in which the actual sharing and discussion of ideas and hypotheses, methodologies and experimental conditions and limitations, sources of error, materials and instrumentation, and data interpretation, can play an important role in fostering critical thinking. According to these researchers, internet communications can serve as the basis for the development of certain aspects of critical thinking, such as interaction skills, particularly the ability to sustain a position through written and verbal arguments. Additionally, Hiltz (1997) concluded that online asynchronous communications force students to engage in more reflective thinking before having to answer or discuss issues. Hiltz, Coppola, Rotter, and Turoff (2000) found that, "when students are actively involved in collaborative learning on-line, the outcomes can be as good as or better than those for traditional classes, but when individuals are simply receiving posted material and sending back individual work, the results are poorer than in traditional classrooms.

Bodzin & Park (1998) analyzed the effects of the use an electronic discussion forum on education students during their student teaching experience. The researchers analyzed student postings and evaluation forms. They found that the messages contained many examples of reflective discourse. Students asked focused questions, sought common meanings in teaching practice, and constructed ideas in collaboration with other forum participants. The survey results indicated that most students felt the forum was a good mechanism for facilitating communication. The students also felt the forum (a)helped them exchange teaching ideas, (b)enabled them to keep in touch with classmates, (c)helped them gain socio-emotional support, and (d)reduced the isolation often associated with student teaching.

Another online method used to stimulate critical thinking, problem solving, and reflection is the email dialogue journal. Meel (1999) examined the effects of dialogue journals on students enrolled in a college calculus class. The dialogue journals were designed to foster bi-directional conversation between the students and the instructor. The journals were submitted by the students via email. The instructor then read and responded to the journal entries with email. The researcher found that the journals (a)provided a forum for private interaction, (b)provided a viable means of individualized contact with students in a large class, (c)improved students' metacognitive skills, and (d)forced students to look over their notes on a regular basis.

A third online method used to stimulate student critical thinking and problem solving skills is the Webquest. According to Roempler (2000), Webquests are inquiry-oriented activities in which some or all of the information that learners interact with come from resources found on the internet. Webquests are usually completed by members of cooperative groups. The activities typically begin with a real-world question or task that has no simple yes or no answer. Roempler stated that the activities are designed to generate higher-order thinking; debating, comparing, analyzing, hypothesizing, and proposing solutions. Dodge (1995) stated that Webquests require students to develop and use thinking skills such as (a) comparing, (b) classifying, (c) inducing, (d) deducing, (e) analyzing errors, (f) constructing support, (g) abstraction, and (h) analyzing perspectives. The Webquests often use scaffolding and prompting which have repeatedly been shown to facilitate such higher-order thinking skills.

Zimmaro and Cawley (1998) found that concept maps are tools that can be used to effectively evaluate how students organize their knowledge of a particular topic. The authors also found that the concept maps force an individual to think about his/her own thought processes and knowledge structure; and they are helpful in problem solving, application, and integration. In an action research project, Dean (2001) evaluated the effect of the collaborative construction of an online concept map in a high school biology class. The concept map was constructed in real time via Blackboard's Virtual Chat software. Participating students reported that the online concept map activity improved their understanding of the biological concepts under study, while also stimulating reflection, critical thinking, and problem solving.

Conclusion Based on the Literature

The research literature seems to suggest that the many online education tasks can be used to improve students' critical thinking and problem solving skills. Webquests, discussion boards, interactive dialogue journals, and collaborative concept maps have all been shown to have a positive effect on these all-important thinking skills.

Possible Impact on Educational Practice

As technology continues to improve, the web will be used more and more for instructional purposes. Already many colleges are offering online courses, with some offering online degree programs. The technology is also being implemented to a much smaller degree in high schools around the world. The literature seems to suggest that, if designed properly, web-based instructional activities can be used to effectively transmit course content while also improving student thinking skills. I am working to incorporate these technologies into my classroom. Currently I already utilize discussion boards, interactive chat sessions, collaborative online concept maps, and Webquests. This school year, I intend to expand my use of these techniques, while also incorporating the use of weekly email dialogue journals.

Possible Research Questions

After analyzing the research pertaining to online courses and their relation to critical thinking and problem solving, I have concluded that most of the research is inadequate. Most of the research relies on student surveys and very limited analyses of student online writing samples. I feel that there is a great need to develop a more accurate way of analyzing student writing for characteristics of critical thinking. I would also like to see more research done on the use of online, collaborative concept maps and email dialogue journals. Additionally, I feel that there is a need to continue to study the effectiveness of chat sessions and discussion groups, especially with high school students.

References

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